Chapter 5 The Rise Of Empires

Following the decline of the Indus/Harappan/Sindhu-Sarasvatī civilisation, which marked India's 'First Urbanisation' in the early 2nd millennium BCE, urban life largely ceased to exist in the Indian subcontinent for about a thousand years. The components of urban order, such as elaborate structures, planned infrastructure, specialized occupations, and state administration, disappeared, and people reverted to a village lifestyle.

However, in the 1st millennium BCE, a new era of urbanisation began. This phase, known as India's 'Second Urbanisation', started in the fertile Ganga plains, parts of the Indus basin, and surrounding areas, gradually expanding to other parts of the subcontinent and continuing to the present day.

Evidence for this Second Urbanisation comes from archaeological excavations of ancient urban sites and descriptions found in contemporary literature, including texts from the late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions.

What Is An Empire?

The term 'empire' is derived from the Latin word 'imperium', meaning 'supreme power'. Essentially, an empire is a vast political entity formed by bringing together a collection of smaller kingdoms or territories under the authority of a single, powerful ruler or group of rulers, often achieved through military conquest.

Within an empire, the central ruler, known as the emperor (terms like samrāj, adhirāja, or rājādhirāja in ancient Sanskrit denote such supreme power), exerts central authority over the entire territory and its constituent parts. The conquered or annexed smaller territories often retained their local rulers, but these rulers became tributaries or vassals to the emperor. They were required to pay tribute – which could be in the form of money, precious metals, grain, livestock, or other valuable goods – as a sign of submission, loyalty, or respect, acknowledging the emperor's overlordship.

Empires are dynamic entities in history, following a cycle of rise, expansion, a period of rule, decline, and eventual disappearance. Understanding how empires functioned in the past provides insights into the political, economic, social, and cultural evolution of regions like India.

Key characteristics and features of an empire include:

• Maintaining a strong army for conquest, defense, and control over tributary states.
• Establishing and managing a complex administration with officials responsible for territorial management, tax collection, and maintaining law and order.
• Promulgating laws, issuing official currencies, standardizing weights and measures, and regulating trade.
• Controlling access to and distribution of valuable resources, including mines, forests, agricultural produce, and manpower.
• Supporting and promoting art, literature, various religious traditions, philosophical schools of thought, and centres of learning.
• Maintaining and developing essential infrastructure such as communication networks (roads, river and sea routes) and facilities for people's welfare, trade, and administration.

While military conquest was a primary method of empire expansion, rulers might also employ diplomatic strategies, alliances, or strategic marriages to bring smaller kingdoms under their influence.

Trade, Trade Routes And Guilds

Maintaining a large army and administering a vast territory requires significant economic resources. This makes a strong economy, particularly through productive activities and extensive trade, crucial for the stability and prosperity of an empire. Emperors prioritized establishing and controlling trade routes to enhance the flow of goods, increase income for producers, and boost tax revenues for the state.

Goods traded in ancient India included a wide variety of items such as textiles, spices, agricultural products, luxury goods (gems, handicrafts), and animals. This trade was not confined within the empire's borders; Indian goods were traded with distant regions by land and sea, connecting India to global networks.

Trade activities led to the formation of powerful associations called guilds (śhrenīs). Guilds were voluntary organizations of individuals engaged in similar occupations, such as traders, craftsmen, moneylenders, or agriculturists. Guilds were typically led by an elected head and executive officers known for their ethical qualities. They were remarkable institutions for two main reasons:

1. They fostered collaboration among members who might otherwise be competitors. By sharing resources, information on markets, supply/demand, and workforce, they benefited collectively.
2. They possessed a degree of autonomy. Ancient texts indicate that guilds had the authority to establish their own internal rules and regulations for their respective professions, and the king was generally expected not to interfere as long as trade was flourishing.

Guilds played a significant role in the economy for centuries and are seen as an example of the self-organizing capacity within Indian society. Alongside village councils and committees, such institutions highlight a pattern of decentralized organization in certain aspects of life, which enlightened rulers often respected.

Important trade routes emerged, connecting different parts of India. The Uttarapatha linked the northwest with the Ganga plains and eastern India. The Dakshinapatha ran from cities in the north (like Kaushambi) southward across the Vindhya range. Lateral roads connected these main routes to vital coastal ports, facilitating maritime trade.

Transportation on these routes would have utilized various modes, including animal-drawn carts and possibly pack animals for land routes, and boats and ships for river and sea navigation.

The Rise Of Magadha

The period from the 6th to the 4th century BCE saw significant political changes in North India. Among the sixteen major states (Mahājanapadas) of this era, Magadha emerged as particularly powerful. Located in present-day south Bihar and surrounding areas, Magadha's rise was crucial for the eventual formation of India's first large empire. Early rulers like Ajatashatru played a key role in establishing Magadha's dominance.

Magadha benefited greatly from its favourable geography and abundant resources:

• It was situated in the highly fertile Ganga plains, supporting productive agriculture and generating a surplus of food grains.
• Access to iron ore from nearby hilly regions was crucial. The increasing use of iron technology, particularly for agricultural tools (iron ploughs) and superior weapons, provided both economic strength and military advantage.
• Dense forests provided valuable timber for construction and elephants, which were trained for the army and were a formidable military asset.
• The Ganga and Son rivers provided natural waterways, facilitating trade and transportation, which boosted the kingdom's income.

The agricultural surplus supported a growing population and allowed for specialization in arts and crafts, further contributing to the flourishing economy and Magadha's rise to power.

In the 5th century BCE, Mahapadma Nanda founded the Nanda dynasty in Magadha. He unified many smaller kingdoms and expanded the empire across parts of eastern and northern India. The Nanda rulers commanded a large army and, benefiting from a thriving economy, issued their own coins, demonstrating their economic power.

However, the last Nanda emperor, Dhana Nanda, is depicted in various accounts as being oppressive and unpopular despite his immense wealth. This dissatisfaction among the people likely weakened the empire internally, making it vulnerable to external challenge and paving the way for its eventual conquest by the Mauryas.

Notable individuals like the famous Sanskrit grammarian Panini lived during the Nanda period. Panini's *Ashtadhyayi* is a foundational text on Sanskrit grammar.

The Arrival Of The Greeks

While Magadha rose to prominence in eastern India, the northwestern part of the subcontinent was connected to the Mediterranean world via ancient routes and comprised several smaller kingdoms. Among these was the kingdom of the Pauravas, led by King Porus, as recorded in Greek accounts.

From 334 to 331 BCE, Alexander the Great, the powerful Greek king of Macedonia, led a military campaign against the vast Persian Empire, seeking to avenge earlier Persian invasions of Greece. He successfully conquered the Persian Empire, and his empire, one of the largest in ancient history, spanned across three continents, spreading Greek culture and influence.

Driven by a desire to reach the eastern limits of the known world, Alexander continued his campaign eastward. From 327 to 325 BCE, he entered India, confronting the local kingdoms. He famously defeated King Porus in a major battle in Punjab. However, Alexander's army faced fierce resistance from other Indian tribes and rulers and suffered casualties, including Alexander himself being seriously wounded. His soldiers, tired and longing for home, eventually refused to advance further towards the Ganga River.

Facing the unwillingness of his troops and political turmoil back in Persia, Alexander began his retreat, taking a coastal route through southern parts and harsh desert regions of Iran. This challenging journey resulted in heavy losses to his army from thirst, hunger, and disease.

Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE at the age of 32. Following his death, his vast empire was divided among his generals and regional governors known as satraps. These satraps, initially officials left to manage distant provinces, often gained significant power and eventually established their own independent kingdoms from the fragments of Alexander's empire.

Alexander's campaign, though limited in its long-term political impact on India as he did not stay long, facilitated early cultural contacts between Greek and Indian civilizations. Greek accounts mention encounters between Alexander and Indian sages, referred to by the Greeks as 'Gymnosophists' (naked philosophers), showcasing an early interest in Indian wisdom and philosophical traditions.

The Mighty Mauryas

Shortly after Alexander's departure from India and the decline of the unpopular Nanda dynasty in Magadha, a new and powerful empire emerged. Around 321 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in Magadha. This empire rapidly absorbed the territories of the Nanda empire and continued to expand, becoming one of the largest empires in Indian history.

Chandragupta Maurya's success in establishing and expanding the empire is often attributed to the guidance and strategic acumen of his mentor, Kautilya (also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta). Kautilya was a renowned scholar from the ancient university of Takshashila, whose expertise in politics, governance, and economics was crucial in building the foundations of the Maurya empire.

Leveraging the geographical and economic advantages of Magadha, and guided by Kautilya's strategies, Chandragupta Maurya gradually expanded his control. He successfully defeated the Greek satraps who remained in the northwest after Alexander's retreat and integrated this region into his growing empire. The Maurya Empire under Chandragupta came to encompass a vast territory stretching from the northern plains all the way down to the Deccan plateau.

Chandragupta Maurya also maintained diplomatic relations with the Greeks. The Greek historian and diplomat Megasthenes served in Chandragupta's court and wrote a significant account of India, known as *Indika*. Although the original text is lost, excerpts quoted by later Greek scholars provide valuable insights into Mauryan society and administration.

Kauṭilya’s Concept Of A Kingdom

Kautilya's treatise on statecraft, governance, and economics, the Arthaśhāstra, provides a detailed framework for establishing, managing, and consolidating a kingdom or empire. One of his most important political concepts is the Saptanga, outlining the seven essential constituent elements of a state:

• Swami: The King or ruler.
• Amatya: Ministers and high officials.
• Janapada: The territory of the state along with its population.
• Durga: Fortified capital and towns.
• Kosha: The treasury or wealth of the kingdom.
• Danda: The army and forces responsible for defense and law and order.
• Mitra: Allies or friends.

According to Kautilya, the successful interplay and strength of these seven elements were necessary to create a stable, well-protected, and prosperous kingdom. He believed that a state needed to be maintained through a combination of warfare (when necessary) and strategic alliances for peace. Kautilya strongly emphasized the importance of a robust administration to uphold law and order and manage the affairs of the state. His work details various laws, including measures to combat corruption and prescribe punishments for actions detrimental to public welfare.

A central tenet of Kautilya's philosophy was the principle that the king's happiness and welfare were intrinsically linked to the happiness and welfare of his subjects. He asserted that a king should prioritize the interests and well-being of the people above his own personal preferences, recognizing that the strength and prosperity of the kingdom fundamentally derived from the productivity and welfare of its population, particularly in rural areas which were the source of economic activity.

The King Who Chose Peace

The Maurya dynasty reached its zenith under Emperor Ashoka (reign: 268–232 BCE), the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya. Ashoka is celebrated for his significant administrative achievements and his unique approach to governance and ethics.

Ashoka inherited a vast empire and initially pursued further expansion. Through conquest, he extended the Maurya Empire to cover almost the entire Indian subcontinent, including present-day Bangladesh, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan, with the exception of the southernmost tip.

A turning point in Ashoka's life and reign is associated with the Kalinga War (modern-day Odisha). Accounts, including Ashoka's own edicts, describe the immense suffering, death, and destruction caused by this ferocious war. Witnessing the horrors of the battlefield profoundly affected Ashoka, leading him to renounce large-scale military conquest and violence.

Inspired by the teachings of the Buddha, Ashoka decided to adopt a path of peace and non-violence to the greatest extent possible. He became a proponent of dharma (Prakrit: dhamma), a concept encompassing moral law, righteous conduct, and living in harmony with the cosmic order (ritam). Dharma includes ethical duties towards family, community, and country, truthfulness, and leading a virtuous life.

Ashoka actively promoted Buddhist teachings and his concept of dharma. He sent emissaries to distant regions like Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Central Asia to spread the message of peace and ethical living. He also used public declarations, known as edicts, which he had engraved on rocks and pillars erected throughout his vast empire, to communicate his policies and messages to the people.

Most of Ashoka's edicts were written in Prakrit, the language commonly spoken in many parts of India at the time, using the Brahmi script. Brahmi is historically significant as it is considered the ancestor script from which most modern Indian scripts are derived.

In his edicts, Ashoka referred to himself as 'Devanampiya Piyadasi', meaning 'Beloved of the Gods' and 'one who regards others with kindness'. The language and content of the edicts reflect his desire to project the image of a benevolent and compassionate ruler who prioritized the welfare of his subjects.

Examples from his edicts highlight his policies aligned with dharma and public welfare: providing medical care for people and animals (even beyond his empire's borders), prohibiting hunting and cruelty to animals, ordering veterinary treatment, establishing rest houses and digging wells along roads, planting fruit and shade trees, and encouraging mutual respect and learning among all sects or schools of thought present in his empire.

While some of Ashoka's claims in the edicts might have been partly for self-promotion, they clearly indicate a ruler who, influenced by Kautilya's ideas on subjects' welfare, made conscious efforts to connect with his people and govern according to ethical principles. Ashoka's reign left a lasting legacy of promoting peace, non-violence, public welfare, and tolerance, which continues to influence Indian thought and values.

The Maurya empire, despite Ashoka's powerful reign, began to decline after his death. His successors struggled to maintain control over the vast territory, and many smaller kingdoms regained their independence. Around 185 BCE, the Maurya Empire came to an end, leading to a new phase in Indian history.

Life In The Mauryan Period

Life during the Mauryan period (roughly 4th to 2nd centuries BCE) was characterized by developed urban centres, a structured economy, and a complex society.

Cities like Pataliputra, the capital, were vibrant hubs of governance and commerce. They featured palaces, public buildings, and were laid out with planned streets. The empire's well-organized taxation system and extensive trade networks ensured a strong treasury, contributing to growth and prosperity. Officials of the central administration, alongside merchants and various artisans, played key roles in urban life.

Historical sources, such as Megasthenes' account and early administrative records like the Sohgaura copper plate, provide insights into daily life and state management. The Sohgaura inscription, one of India's earliest known administrative documents written in Prakrit and Brahmi script, indicates state efforts towards food security, mentioning the establishment of granaries to store grain as a safeguard against famines.

Agriculture was the primary economic activity and a major source of revenue. With rainfall supporting two crops a year (summer and winter), famines were reportedly rare, and food was generally abundant, with granaries maintained for emergencies. Farmers were often protected from the disruptions of nearby wars, allowing agricultural production to continue.

Cities housed various artisans, including blacksmiths (benefiting from iron metallurgy), potters, carpenters, and jewellers. Urban settlements were planned, with features like street signage. Communication across the empire relied on couriers carrying messages.

Residential buildings in cities were often constructed of wood and could be up to two storeys high. Fire prevention measures were in place, such as water vessels kept at regular intervals on streets. Descriptions of clothing mention cotton dresses, including a lower garment and an upper cloth draped over the shoulders. Footwear, sometimes made of leather, could feature elaborate designs and thick soles.

Some Contributions Of The Mauryas

The Maurya Empire left a lasting impact on Indian civilisation through its administrative innovations, economic development, and contributions to art and architecture.

Life And People

The Mauryas fostered a period of relative stability and prosperity over a vast area. Their organized administration, efforts towards public welfare (as highlighted in Ashoka's edicts), and a thriving economy based on agriculture and trade contributed to improved living conditions for many subjects. The state's attention to infrastructure like roads, rest houses, and wells facilitated travel and communication, integrating the empire and benefiting its diverse population.

Art And Architecture

The Mauryan period is significant for its advancements in art and architecture, particularly the extensive use of stone on a grand scale.

• Pillars and Capitals: The Mauryas are renowned for their highly polished monolithic stone pillars, often topped with elaborate capitals. The Sarnath pillar capital is a prime example, featuring four lions seated back-to-back, symbolizing royal power. Below the lions, a circular abacus depicts four animals (elephant, bull, horse, lion) interspersed with the Dharmachakra (wheel of dharma), which symbolizes the Buddha's teachings and the cosmic order. This Sarnath capital was chosen as India's national emblem, with the motto 'Satyameva Jayate' ('truth alone triumphs') from the Mundaka Upanishad added below it. The Dharmachakra is also featured prominently on India's national flag.
• Stone Sculpture: Mauryan art includes notable stone sculptures, such as the life-size elephant sculpture at Dhauli (near Bhubaneswar), which is believed to symbolize the Buddha and is located near one of Ashoka's rock edicts. Sculptures of female deities (yakshis) and other figures were also created.
• Terracotta Figurines: Alongside stone work, terracotta figurines were produced, depicting dancing girls, female deities (including representations of the Saptamatrikas, or seven mother goddesses, a tradition that continued), and animal figures.
• Architecture: Ashoka is credited with constructing numerous stupas, chaityas (prayer halls), and viharas (monasteries) for Buddhist worship, study, and meditation. The Great Stupa at Sanchi, one of India's oldest surviving stone structures, although initially built of bricks and later enlarged with stone, is a prime example of Mauryan architectural patronage. Stupas feature a hemispherical structure (anda) often housing sacred relics, symbolizing the universe, and are central to the practice of circumambulation (pradakshina).

The Mauryas also issued their own distinct punch-marked coins, characterized by various symbols, which facilitated trade and economic activity across the vast empire.

The Fragile Nature Of Empires

Despite their might and vast reach, empires throughout history have proven to be inherently fragile and ultimately impermanent. Historians study the factors that contributed to the decline and fall of major empires globally.

Several reasons can lead to the disintegration of an empire:

• Regional Aspirations and Resentment: Tributary kingdoms or provinces often desire independence. This desire can intensify if the central empire's demands for tribute increase (e.g., to fund wars or cope with economic crises like droughts), leading to resentment among local rulers and populations. A perceived weak emperor succeeding a powerful one can embolden regional rulers to challenge central authority and cease paying tribute.
• Challenges of Managing Vast Territories: The sheer size of empires makes effective administration and control difficult, particularly over far-off provinces. Communication can be slow, and central authority may weaken with distance. Remote territories are often the first to break away during times of instability.
• Economic Crises: Natural calamities like severe droughts or floods can devastate the economy, reduce resources, and strain the administration's ability to maintain control and provide for the population, weakening the empire's structure.
• Internal Conflicts and Succession Issues: Disputes over succession or internal power struggles can destabilize the central government.
• External Pressures: Invasions or persistent threats from outside forces can drain resources and military strength.

Empires present a historical paradox: they can unify large regions, reduce conflict between smaller states, and potentially foster economic growth and prosperity through centralized administration and expanded trade networks. However, they are almost universally established and maintained through military force and often involve repression of local identities or aspirations, which creates inherent tensions and contributes to their long-term instability and eventual collapse.